V. Scholarly Treatments

A. Theological Assessments

Theological assessments of the Unification Church are to a degree unprecedented among new religious movements both in their quantity and in that they have been solicited by the Church. Due in part to the establishment of the Unification Theological Seminary in 1975 and to the launching in 1977 of a series of Unification Church-financed dialogues between its seminarians and interested scholars, there has emerged a substantial body of scholarship on Unification theology and thought. A number of these studies take the form of conference proceedings and include both articles and discussion. Most but not all have been published under Church auspices and edited by outside scholars. Some include contributions from Unification Church seminary graduates as they have interacted with professional theologians. In this sense, sponsorship of ecumenical dialogues has furthered Unification Church apologetic, educational and theological purposes. Published material includes theological overviews, analyses of specific doctrines and evaluations of the Church's social teaching and practices.

Theological overviews elaborate the cultural and institutional contexts, sources, core elements, significance and internal coherence of Unification Church theological texts and teachings. Generally sympathetic, some treatments hail Unification theology as holding forth the promise of fresh departures in longstanding theological debates or of a coming synthesis of Eastern and Western thought. Others contrast underlying potentialities in Unification Church teachings with shortcomings in their present articulation. A number of treatments eschew final conclusions and simply explore continuities and discontinuities between Unification theology and other traditions. Some do so in explicitly comparative terms.

The single most useful theological overview of Unification Church teachings is Lonnie Kliever's "Unification Thought and Modem Theology" [1457]. Kliever, who includes a helpful bibliographical survey, characterizes the Unification Church as a "messianic revitalization movement" which, at the same time, "is highly self-conscious about communication theory, group dynamics and theological apologetics." Further, he argues, "The unavoidable clash between the two-messianic revitalization and self-conscious modernization is the source of 'Unification Mystique' for committed insiders and interested outsiders alike" (214-15). Noting that this "collision of consciousness" is at the heart of modem theological development, Kliever concludes:

Through a glass darkly, we see the distinctive ethos and pathos of modem theology mirrored in Unification thought. The need, therefore, to take account of these theological materials goes beyond theological defensiveness or theological charity. A careful study of Unification theology is a valuable exercise in self-discovery and self-criticism (221).

Other important theological overviews are Thomas Boslooper's "Unificationism and Biblical Studies" [1409]; Frank K. Flinn's "The Hermeneutics of Completed Testaments" [1429]; Warren Lewis' "Is the Rev. Sun Myung Moon a Heretic? Locating Unification Theology on the Map of Church History" [1464]; Hae Soo Pyun's "Divine Principle and Oriental Philosophy" [1478]; Herbert Richardson's "A Brief Outline of Unification Theology" [1480]; and Richard L. Rubenstein's "Radical Secularization, the Modem Age and the New Religions" [1484].

Analyses of specific doctrines are more detailed and sharply focused than theological overviews. At the same time, while overviews take into account a broad range of cultural, religious and institutional influences, treatments of specific doctrines tend to be preoccupied with the question of whether or not and in what ways Unification Church tenets are identifiably "Christian." This concern derives primarily from the fact that Unification Church theological texts follow the traditional divisions of God and Creation, Human Nature and the Fall, Christology, History and Eschatology. Analyses of these doctrines include general expositions, comparative studies, critical reflections and constructive restatements.

The most comprehensive expositions of UC doctrines are Young Oon Kim's Unification Theology [509], an updated and expanded version of her earlier Unification, Theology and Christian Thought [711-12] and Sebastian A. Matczak's Unificationism: A New Philosophy and Worldview [1471]. Kim's work "compares the basic teaching of the Divine Principle... with that found in theological writings published by mainline denominations" and argues "how often this new Korean theology is confirmed by professional theologians in the West" (iii-iv). Matczak supplements Kim's treatment by treating philosophical and social aspects of Unification Church doctrines. Terming Unificationism "a theistic and Christian worldview," he emphasizes its relationship and reconcilability to "the traditional Christian position." See Clark [1419], Eby [1424], Wells [1497], and Wilson [1501] for expositions of specific doctrines. Key comparative and critical reflections as opposed to general expositions include M. Darrol Bryant's "Unification Eschatology and American Millennial Traditions" [1411], Durwood Foster's "Unification and Traditional Christology: An Unresolved Relationship" [1435], Gary E. Kessler's "Indemnity: Does It Make Sense?" [1449], and Fredrick Sontag's "The God of Principle: A Critical Evaluation" [1488]. Rather than emphasizing theological convergence, these treatments as often highlight a vigorous diversity of interpretation at work within Unification teachings reflective of diversity within the Christian tradition. This more pluralistic view has led to further development of Unification Church positions, particularly as related to issues of evil, suffering and human freedom.

Evaluations of Unification Church social teachings and practices differ from overviews and analyses of specific doctrines in that the cleavage between sympathetic and critical readings is more pronounced. Sympathetic treatments describe Unification Church social theory and practice as continuous with, mediating between or as an alternative to contemporary ethical systems. Critiques fault the Unification Church for theoretical imprecision and implicit authoritarianism. Other studies are more descriptive or balance critique with recognition of positive features in the Church's social vision and praxis.

The most ambitious applications of Unification Church doctrine to society are San Hun Lee's The End Of Communism [637], an updated version of his earlier Communism: A Critique and Counterproposal [578], and Explaining Unification Thought [638], an updated version of his earlier Unification Thought [639]. Although presented in lecture form and cognizant of scholarly limitations and gaps in formulation, Lee extrapolates an unambiguous social agenda from Unification Church doctrinal texts: the eradication of communism and final synthesis of all sciences and philosophies under Unification Thought as the basis for a new world order. More provisional, though still appreciative readings depict Unification Church social theory as an alternative to Western social contract and Oriental hierarchical paradigms [1423] or to the modem liberal conception of marriage as a purely contractural agreement [1430]. Others have detected resonance with liberation theology [1427] and the Catholic natural law tradition [1477]. The most representative statement of objections to Unification Church social teachings is David F. Kelly's "Religion and Society in Unificationism" [1448]. Besides alleging contradictions in its vision of the ultimate society, Kelly chides the Unification Church for a tendency "too quickly to identify the heavenly side and the satanic side," for an "emphasis on the family apt... to lead to the relative dis valuing of other modes of human generativity and creativity," and for "sexism" (360-62). See Heinz [1440], James [1442] and Kliever [1456] for related critiques. It may be, however, that ambiguities and unresolved tensions in Unification Church social theory serve to undercut a perceived authoritarianism. This has been the implicit conclusion of several feminist critiques [1418, 1436, 1503].

1402. Anderson, Gordon L. "God Is Parent: Rich and Poor Nations Are Siblings." In God and Global Justice: Religion and Poverty in an Unequal World (item 704), pp. 120-35.

1403. __. "Indemnity for World Peace." In Restoring the Kingdom (item 703), pp. 45-55.

1404. __. "The Unification Vision of the Kingdom of God on Earth." In The Coming Kingdom: Essays in American Millennialism and Eschatology (item 695), pp. 209-21.

1405. Aslid, Dagfinn. "The Future God." In Hermeneutics and Horizons: The Shape of the Future (item 706), pp. 399-407.

1406. __. "Unification Theology as History." In Hermeneutics and Horizons: The Shape of the Future (item 706), pp. 251-59.

1407. __. "Spiritual Discipline as Actualization of the Heart of God." In Ultimate Reality and Spiritual Discipline (item 701), pp. 139-51.

1408. Boslooper, Thomas. "Critique of Divine Principle's Reading of the New Testament." In Hermeneutics and Horizons: The Shape of the Future (item 706), pp. 103-13.

1409. __. "Unification and Biblical Studies." In Unity in Diversity: Essays in Religion by Faculty Members of the Unification Theological Seminary (item 728), pp. 297-323.

1410. Bryant, M. Darrol. "Critical Reflections on Unification Eschatology." In Exploring Unification Theology (item 697), pp. 147-56.

1411. __. "Unification Eschatology and American Millennial Traditions." In A Time for Consideration: A Scholarly Appraisal of the Unification Church (item 1412), pp. 261-74.

* Bryant, M. Darrol, and Susan Hodges, eds. Exploring Unification Theology. Cited above as item 697.

1412. Bryant, M. Darrol, and Herbert W. Richardson. A Time for Consideration: A Scholarly Appraisal of the Unification Church. New York: Edwin Mellen 1978. 317 pp.

Contains items 1411, 1432, 1463-64, 1468, 1480, 1482, 1485, 1638, 1650.

1413. Campbell, Debra. "Indulgences and Indemnity in the Life of the Believer: A Modem Catholic Perspective." In Restoring the Kingdom (item 703), pp. 165-74.

1414. Chang, Byung Kil. "A Study of the Unification Principle from the Perspective of Religious Studies." In Research on the Unification Principle: Seminar of Korean Scholars on Unification Theology (item 723), pp. 149-62.

1415. Chang, Ki Kin. "The Unification Principle and Oriental Thought." In Research on the Unification Principle: Seminar of Korean Scholars on Unification Theology (item 723), pp. 63-77.

1416. Choi, Dong Hee. "Unification Doctrine--Its Philosophical Nature and Significance." In Research on the Unification Principle: Seminar of Korean Scholars on Unification Theology (item 723), pp. 37 47.

1417. Choi, Min Hong. "The Unification Principle and Korean Thought (Centering on the 'Oneness in Buddha' Concept of Wonhyo)." In Research on the Unification Principle: Seminar of Korean Scholars on Unification Theology (item 723), pp. 95-108.

1418. Clark, Elizabeth. "Women in the Theology of the Unification Church." In Exploring Unification Theology (item 697), pp. 109 21.

1419. Clark, Francis. "The Fall of Man in Divine Principle." In Ten Theologians Respond to the Unification Church (item 724), pp. 141-65.

1420. __. "The Principle of Indemnity." In Restoring the Kingdom (item 703), pp. 17-31.

1421. Eby, Lloyd. "Is God Good and Can God Be Defended?" In The Defense of God (item 725), pp. 48-67.

1422. __. "The Kingdom of Heaven." In Unity in Diversity: Essays in Religion by Members of the Faculty of the Unification Theological Seminary (item 728), pp. 149-61.

1423. __. "Society and Ethics in Unificationism." In Hermeneutics and Horizons: The Shape of the Future (item 706), pp. 345-56.

1424. __. "The Unification Understanding of God." In Hermeneutics and Horizons: The Shape of the Future (item 706), pp. 159-69.

1425. Edwards, Cliff. "Paul and Unificationism: Restoration through Grace or Indemnity?" In Restoring the Kingdom (item 703), pp. 141-51.

1426. Feige, Franz. "Salvation as Restoration in Unification Thought." In Orthodox-Unification Dialogue (item 730), pp. 115-23.

1427. Ferm, Deane William. "A Preference for the Poor: Where Liberation Theology and Unification Theology Might Converge." In Restoring the Kingdom (item 703), pp. 183-92.

1428. Fleming, James R. "Restoration through Indemnity and the Problem of Suffering." In Restoring the Kingdom (item 703), pp. 33-43.

1429. Flinn, Frank K. "The Hermeneutics of Completed Testaments." In Hermeneutics and Horizons: The Shape of the Future (item 706), pp. 115-29.

1430. __. "Marriage as Eschatological Type in Unification Theology." In The Family and the Unification Church (item 709), pp. 235-53.

1431. __. "The New Religions and the Second Naivete: Beyond Demystification and Demythologization." In Ten Theologians Respond to the Unification Church (item 724), pp. 41-59.

1432. __. "Unification Hermeneutics and Christian Theology." In A Time For Consideration: A Scholarly Appraisal of the Unification Church (item 1412), pp. 141-66.

1433. Foster, Durwood. "The Fall in Divine Principle." In Society and Original Sin: Ecumenical Essays on the Impact of the Fall (item 707), pp. 73-85.

1434. __. "Notes on Christology and Hermeneutics: Especially Regarding Dialogue with Unification Theology." In Hermeneutics and Horizons: The Shape of the Future (item 706), pp. 201-28.

1435. __. "Unification and Traditional Christology: An Unresolved Relationship." In Ten Theologians Respond to the Unification Church (item 724), pp. 179-99.

1436. Getz, Lorine M. "Women and the Hermeneutics of the Future." In Hermeneutics and Horizons: The Shape of the Future (item 706), pp. 409-16.

1437. Guerra, Anthony J. "The Historical Jesus and Divine Principle." In Hermeneutics and Horizons: The Shape of the Future (item 706), 49-59.

1438. Hadden, Jeffrey K. "Indemnity Lost, Indulgences Regained: Theological Convergence in American Televangelism." In Restoring the Kingdom (item 703), pp. 211-13.

1439. Han, Tai Soo. "The Unity of Eastern and Western Civilizations through the Unification Principle." In Research on the Unification Principle: Seminar of Korean Scholars on Unification Theology (item 723), pp. 257-69.

1440. Heinz, Donald. "The Family: The New Christian Right's Symbol for a Lost Past, The Unification Movement's Hope for a Second Advent" In The Family and the Unification Church (item 709), pp. 67-85.

1441. Hendricks, Tyler. "Voluntary Association, Intermarriage and 'The World of the Heart.' " In Unity in Diversity: Essays in Religion by Members of the Faculty of the Unification Theological Seminary (item 728), pp. 413-23.

1442. James, Gene. "Family, Spiritual Values and World Government." In The Family and the Unification Church (item 709), pp. 255-68.

1443. __. "The Unification Doctrine of the Fall and the Problem of Evil." In Society and Original Sin: Ecumenical Essays on the Fall (item 707), pp. 86-99.

1444. James, Theodore E. "Reason, Revelation, and Romans." In Unity in Diversity: Essays in Religion by Members of the Faculty of the Unification Theological Seminary (item 728), pp. 325-58.

1445. Johannesen, Stanley. "Historical Narration in Divine Principle: The Ideology of Religious Story." In Hermeneutics and Horizons: The Shape of the Future (item 706), pp. 281-314.

1446. Johnson, Kapp L. "Critique of Divine Principle's Reading of the Old Testament." In Hermeneutics and Horizons: The Shape of the Future (item 706), pp. 93-101.

1447. Johnson, Kurt. "The Unification Principle and Science: Promise, Paradox, and Predicament." In Unity in Diversity: Essays in Religion by Members of the Faculty of the Unification Theological Seminary (item 728), pp. 395-412.

1448. Kelly, David F. "Religion and Society in Unificationism." In Hermeneutics and Horizons: The Shape of the Future (item 706), pp. 357-64.

1449. Kessler, Gary E. "Indemnity: Does It Make Sense?" In Restoring the Kingdom (item 703), pp. 59-70.

1450. Kim, David S. C. "Marxism and the Unification Alternative." In Unity in Diversity: Essays in Religion by Members of the Faculty of the Unification Theological Seminary (item 728), pp. 255-96.

1451. Kim, Tae Chang. "Modem Ideological Conflicts and Victory over Communism (VOC) Theory." In Research on the Unification Principle: Seminar of Korean Scholars on Unification Theology (item 723), pp. 283-91.

1452. Kim, Young Min. "A Comparative Study of the View of God in Divine Principle." In Research on the Unification Principle: Seminar of Korean Scholars on Unification Theology (item 723), pp. 17-24.

1453. Kim, Young Oon. "God Is Now Closer." In God, the Contemporary Discussion (item 726), pp. 313-31.

1454. __. "Satan: Reality or Symbol?" In Society and Original Sin: Essays on the Impact of the Fall (item 707), pp. 21-36.

* __ Unification Theology. Cited above as item 509.

* __ Unification Theology and Christian Thought. Cited above as items 711-12.

1455. Kliever, Lonnie D. "The Unification Church as Metainstitution." In Ten Theologians Respond to the Unification Church (item 724), pp. 61-74.

1456. __. "Unification Social Hermeneutic: Theocratic or Bureaucratic?" In Hermeneutics and Horizons: The Shape of the Future (item 706), pp. 365-71.

1457. __. "Unification Thought and Modem Theology." Religious Studies Review 8 (July 1982): 214-21.

1458. Kodera, T. James. "Toward an Asianization of Christianity: Demise or Metamorphosis?" In Ten Theologians Respond to the Unification Church (item 724), pp. 75-88.

1459. Kwak, Chung Hwan. "God and Creation in Unification Theology." In God, the Contemporary Discussion (item 726), pp. 85-94.

1460. Lee, Hang Nyong. "Sun Myung Moon--His Faith and Thought." In Sun Myung Moon: The Man and His Ideal (item 675), pp. 65 104.

1461. Lee, James Michael. "John Dewey and the Unification Church; Some Points of Contact." In Unity in Diversity: Essays in Religion by Members of the Faculty of the Unification Theological Seminary (item 728), pp. 371-93.

* Lee, Sang Hun. Communism: A Critique and Counterproposal. Cited above as item 578.

* __ The End Of Communism. Cited above as item 637.

* __. Explaining Unification Thought. Cited above as item 638.

* __. Unification Thought. Cited above as item 639.

1462. __. "The Unification View of God." In God in Contemporary Thought: A Philosophical Perspective, edited by Sebastian Matzcak, 727-49. New York: Learned Publications, 1977.

1463. Lewis, Warren. "Hero with the Thousand-and-First-Face." In A Time for Consideration: A Scholarly Appraisal of the Unification Church (item 1412), pp. 275-89.

1464. __. "Is ~he Reverend Sun Myung Moon a Heretic? Locating Unification Theology on the Map of Church History." In A Time for Consideration: A Scholarly Appraisal of the Unification Church (item 1412), pp. 167-219.

1465. Lindner, Klaus M. "The Periods of Christian History in Unification Theology." In Hermeneutics and Horizons: The Shape of the Future (item 706), pp. 261-69.

1466. McGowan, Thomas. "Horace Bushnell and the Unification Movement: A Comparison of Theologies." In Ten Theologians Respond to the Unification Church (item 724), pp. 19-39.

1467. Masefield, Peter. "The Muni and the Moonies." Religion 15 (April 1985): 143-60.

1468. Matczak, Sebastian. "God in Unification Philosophy and Christian Tradition." In A Time For Consideration: A Scholarly Appraisal of the Unification Church (item 1412), pp. 220-57.

1469. __. "Human Nature in the Unification View and in the Christian Tradition." In Orthodox-Unification Dialogue (item 730), pp. 21 33.

1470. "The Role of Jesus in Man's Salvation According to Unification Thought and Christian Tradition." In Orthodox Unification Dialogue (item 730), pp. 75-88.

1471. __. Unificationism: A New Philosophy and Worldview. New York: Learned Publications, 1982. 493 pp.

1472. Mavrodes, George I. "Indemnity: An Essay in Clarification." In Restoring the Kingdom (item 703), pp. 71-85.

1473. Meagher, John C. "Two Cheers for Indemnity." In Restoring the Kingdom (item 703), pp. 87-99.

1474. Miller, Timothy. "Families within a Family: Spiritual Values of Hutterites and Unificationists." In The Family and the Unification Church (item 709), pp. 53-65.

1475. O'Sullivan, Michael. "Blood, Sweat, and Tears: Suffering for the Kingdom." In Restoring the Kingdom (item 703), pp. 101-11.

1476. Phan, Peter C. "The Doctrine of Reparation in Divine Principle and Anselm's Cur Deus Homo." In Restoring the Kingdom (item 703), pp. 153-63.

1477. Post, Steven. "Divine Principle and Natural Law." In Hermeneutics and Horizons: The Shape of the Future (item 706), pp. 337-43.

1478. Pyun, Hae Soo. "Divine Principle and Oriental Philosophy." In Unity in Diversity: Essays in Religion by Members of the Faculty of the Unification Theological Seminary (item 728), pp. 359-70.

1479. Quitsland, Sonya A. "A Christian Feminist Critique of the Doctrine of Indemnity." In Restoring the Kingdom (item 703), pp. 123-38.

1480. Richardson, Herbert. "A Brief Outline of Unification Theology." In A Time for Consideration: A Scholarly Appraisal of the Unification Church (item 1412), pp. 133-40.

1481. __. "Freedom and the Will: A Unification Theory." In Ten Theologians Respond to the Unification Church (item 724), pp. 167-78.

1482. __. "A Lecture to Students at the Unification Theological Seminary in Barrytown, New York." In A Time for Consideration: A Scholarly Appraisal of the Unification Church (item 1412), pp. 290-317.

1483. Roberts, James Deotis. "Hermeneutics: History and Providence." In Hermeneutics and Horizons: The Shape of the Future (item 706), pp. 315-26.

1484. Rubenstein, Richard L. "Radical Secularization, the Modem Age and the New Religions." In Ten Theologians Respond to the Unification Church (item 724), pp. 89-105.

1485. Sawatsky, Rodney. "Moonies, Mormons and Mennonites: Christian Heresy and Religious Toleration." In A Time for Consideration: A Scholarly Appraisal of the Unification Church (item 1412), pp. 20-40.

1486. Sonneborn, John Andrew. "God, Suffering and Hope: A Unification View." In Unity in Diversity: Essays in Religion by Faculty Members of the Unification Theological Seminary (item 728), pp. 163-239.

1487. __. "Unification Theology, Ecumenicity, and 'The God of Principle': A Response to F. Sontag's Essay." Journal of Ecumenical Studies 22 (Fall 1985): 754-63.

1488. Sontag, Fredrick. "The God of Principle: A Critical Evaluation." In Ten Theologians Respond to the Unification Church (item 724), pp. 107-39. Reprinted (abridged) in Journal of Ecumenical Studies 22 (Fall 1985): 741-53.

1489. __. "Marriage and Family in Unification Theology." In The Family and the Unification Church (item 709), pp. 217-34.

1490. __. "The Principle of the Future." In Hermeneutics and Horizons: The Shape of the Future (item 706), pp. 417-21.

1491. Thompson, Henry O. "A Study in Anti-Semitism: Israels in Divine Principle." In Unity in Diversity: Essays in Religion by Members of the Faculty of the Unification Theological Seminary (item 728), pp. 73-133.

1492. Tsirpanlis, Constantine N. "The Blessed Virgin's Place in God's Redemption According to the Church Fathers and Unification Thought." In Orthodox-Unification Dialogue (item 730), pp. 98 107.

1493. Vander Goot, Henry. "The Humanity of God and the Divinity of Man: Reflections on Unification's Theology of Creation." In Exploring Unification Theology (item 697), pp. 93-99.

1494. Walsh, Tom. "Celibacy, Virtue, and the Practice of True Family in the Unification Church." In The Family and the Unification Church (item 709), pp. 139-59.

1495. __. "The Response to Suffering." In Society and Original Sin: Ecumenical Essays on the Impact of the Fall (item 707), pp. 119 32.

1496. Wells, Jonathan. "Some Reflections on the Unification Account of the Fall." In Society and Original Sin: Ecumenical Essays on the Impact of the Fall (item 707), pp. 62-72.

1497. __. "Unification Christology." In Unity in Diversity: Essays on Religion by Members of the Faculty of the Unification Theological Seminary (item 728), pp. 135-47.

1498. __. "Unification Hermeneutics and Christology." In Hermeneutics and Horizons: The Shape of the Future (item 706), pp. 185-200.

1499. Wentz, Richard E. "America: Mirror of the Faces of Restoration." In Restoring the Kingdom (item 703), pp. 193-210.

1500. Wilson, Andrew M. "Biblical Hermeneutics in Divine Principle: The Context of Confucianism." In Hermeneutics and Horizons: The Shape of the Future (item 706), pp. 3-23.

1501. __. "The Unification Doctrine of Indemnity." In Restoring the Kingdom (item 703), pp. 3-15.

1502. Yoon, Se Won. "The Creation Doctrine and Contemporary Science." In Research on the Unification Principle: Seminar of Korean Scholars on Unification Theology (item 723), pp. 121-31.

1503. Zulkosky, Patricia. "Women: Guilt, Spirituality and Family." In The Family and the Unification Church (item 709), pp. 175-93.

B. Sociological Analyses

Sociological analyses of the Unification Church, for the most part, have been neither solicited by nor published under the auspices of the Church. That is, sociologists of religion, more so than theologians, have sought out the Unification Church and have been able to publish their findings in both commercial and academic presses. Interest in the Unification Church within this field has been stimulated to a certain extent by the emergence of new religious movements (NRMs) as a major research topic during the seventies. The best-known sociological analysis of the Unification Church, however, was published before that emergence, and interest in the Unification Church among sociologists of religion is still lively despite a waning of interest in NRMs during the eighties. In addition, sociologists, more so than practitioners of other disciplines, have exercised themselves over a variety of methodological and ethical considerations ranging from covert v. overt research postures to the propriety or impropriety of attending Unification Church-funded conferences.

The earliest and still the best-known sociological analysis of the Unification Church is John Lofland's Doomsday Cult: A Study of Conversion, Proselytization, and Maintenance of Faith [1579]. Employing pseudonyms and originally presented as a doctoral dissertation at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1964, Lofland's study was based on nearly a year's participant observation of the original Unification Church community in the San Francisco Bay Area. The book is well known for its model of conversion, a theory which Lofland and colleague Rodney Stark first published in the American Sociological Review [1585]. The Lofland-Stark or "world-saver" model, which became the most widely cited conversion model in the literature of sociology, elaborates "the conditions under which one may expect persons to take up a deviant role." According to Lofland [1579], conversion to the Unification Church required that a person:

1. experience enduring, acutely felt tensions;

2. within a religious, problem-solving perspective;

3. which lead to defining himself as a religious seeker;

4. encountering the cult at a turning point in his life;

5. wherein an affective bond to adherents is formed (or pre-exists);

6. where extra-cult attachments are low or neutralized;

7. and where, to become a "deployable agent," exposure to interaction is accomplished (7-8).

In a 1977 epilogue to his original treatment, Lofland [1580] attempted to explain how "an obscure end-of-the-world religion... went on to become nationally and internationally famous in the 1970s." He, however, placed this development within a "boom and bust" pattern and predicted the Unification Church will "join the ranks of the many 'has been' movements that linger on in America" (v, 280).

After Lofland, the next significant treatment of the Unification Church in social scientific literature consisted of several articles by Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony. These include "The Last Civil Religion: Reverend Moon and the Unification Church" [1613], "The Effect of Detente on the Growth of New Religions: Reverend Moon and the Unification Church" [1506] and "Spiritual Innovation and the Crisis of American Civil Religion" [1507], all of which depict the Unification Church as a "civil religion sect." That is, though acknowledging, "The growth of the Unification Church... demonstrates the continued existence of a widespread hunger for religion with a pronounced civil dimension," Robbins et al. [1613] characterize the Unification Church's reconstruction of "declining theistic and anti-communist patriotic values" as authoritarian and totalistic (124). Barbara Hargrove [1559], however, criticized Anthony and Robbins' work for "dealing primarily with the stated ideology" and only marginally with "the full nature of the Unification Church or its meaning to the rank and file membership" (212).

The work of sociologists Anson D. Shupe, Ir. and David G. Bromley has been more broad-ranging. In some twenty articles and two monographs published between 1977-82, they established themselves as authorities on the Church and, in a sense, as successors to Lofland. At the same time, there are important differences between their and Lofland's approach. The major one is that while Lofland utilized a close descriptive analysis to generate theory, Bromley and Shupe employed existing theories to facilitate their descriptive analysis of the Church. Terming the DC and its constellation of related organizations a "world-transforming social movement, i.e., one that seeks total, permanent, structural change of societies across all institutions," Bromley and Shupe used a "resource mobilization" approach to assess the Unification Church's ideology, leadership, recruitment-socialization and public identity. This is most explicit in their monograph, Moonies in America: Cult, Church, and Crusade [1540]. Significantly, however, they noted, "those internal strategies most effective for the UM [Unification Movement] in mobilizing resources were also the ones that evoked the most outrage and social reaction" (224). The implications of this dilemma are explored in their companion volume, The New Vigilantes: Deprogrammers, Anti-Cultists and the New Religions [1624].

Along with Lofland, Bromley, and Shupe, the other major sociological interpreter of the Unification Church has been Eileen Barker. Based in England, she did substantial research in the United States and published numerous articles on the Church as well as a monograph, The Making of a Moonie: Choice or Brainwashing? [1512]. As its title suggests, the primary topic of this volume is recruitment. Barker's other research interest, of which "Doing Love: Tensions in the Ideal Family" [1510] and "Living the Divine Principle" [1511] are good examples, related to questions of lifestyle. Her work, particularly on recruitment, differs from studies already cited in that it is heavily empirical. That is, she supplements participant-observation with in-depth interviewing and computer-coded questionnaires. In addition, the British Unification Church granted her access to complete membership lists and more than a thousand applications for workshop attendance in the London area during 1979. As a result, Barker was able to establish convincing membership profiles as well as rates of recruitment and defection. More important, her research on the Church signals a move beyond the NRM model to the kind of sociological studies characteristic of more established religious bodies.

As stated, sociologists more so than practitioners of other disciplines have exercised themselves over a variety of methodological issues related to the UC. At one level, questions of data collection, analysis and confidentiality have been complicated by delicate and not always successful negotiations with the Church. Lofland [1579], for example, recounted how he "was defined as a positive threat" and denied access to the group (274-75). Bromley and Shupe [1540], though not forced to terminate their study prematurely and having gained leverage by studying the Unification Church in tandem with "anti-cultists," nonetheless, faced "uneasiness that we had seen so much and yet remained unconvinced" (201). Barker [1512], although more successful in forging an ongoing research relationship with the Unification Church, still referred to "intellectual loneliness" and methodological schizophrenia (21, 262).

While these ambiguities and tensions are relatively standard in field research, they became increasingly "politicized" as the Unification Church began sponsoring conferences not only for scientists and theologians but also for sociologists of religion. As a result, questions of funding, sponsorship and professional ethics emerged with some vehemence and prompted a symposium in a major sociological journal. These issues were first raised by Irving Louis Horowitz in a collection of essays and reprints entitled Science, Sin and Sponsorship: The Politics of Reverend Moon and the Unification Church [1567]. Criticizing the Unification Church and, in particular, sponsorship of its annual International Conference on the Unity of the Sciences (ICUS), Horowitz called attention to what he termed, "the failure of nerve of one professional association after another and the failure of one esteemed scientist after another to inquire about the larger meanings of his research and what such activities signify" (280). Horowitz, however, was charged with undue intellectual bias by John Lofland in a review that sparked an acrimonious exchange between the two in The Canadian Journal of Sociology [1565, 1581]. See also Leo Sandon's critique of Horowitz in Soundings [1615, 1562].

The terms of this debate were enlarged after the Unification Church sponsored an international conference on "The Social Impact of New Religious Movements." British sociologist Bryan Wilson [732], who edited a volume of essays from that meeting, directly challenged Horowitz by asserting, "scholars more involved with the new religions in their academic work than he is himself, are not to be stampeded by condemnations--all to McCarthy like in tone--into abandoning their legitimate concerns" (xiii). Similarly, Barbara Hargrove, in a review article, "On Studying the Moonies as a 'Political' Act" [1559], complained that "pressures from scholars like Horowitz have made it most difficult to treat the Unification Church or other new religions in the balanced way that Lofland achieved in the early years of that movement" (212). Continued agitation over this issue led Sociological Analysis to sponsor a symposium on "Scholarship and Sponsorship" featuring several principals in the debate. Horowitz [1566], in the lead article, again questioned, "what compels otherwise highly refined scientific and social scientific imaginations to become representatives, spokespersons, even apologists for governmental or theological special interests?" (179).

James Beckford [1527] raised the specter of specialists "split into two camps." One, he said, "may meet regularly at the Moonies' expense in order to plan its sponsored publications; the other may patronize the regular meetings of long-established professional associations in order to subject their work to the critical scrutiny of fellow scientists" (194). On the other side, Barker [1515], Wallis [1640] and Wilson [1642] defended the academic integrity of individual scholars, argued that work, not personal connections, of researchers should be judged, and disputed specific claims about the Unification Church. Thomas Robbins [1597], in attempting to contextualize the discussion, speculated that a twenty-five year post-WW II period of "detente" between religion and social science had ended. He further argued that the reemergence of "controversial" religion "is contributing to what will surely be a period of enhanced theoretical, epistemological and political ferment in the sociology of religion" (211).

1504. Ambrose, Kenneth P. "Function of the Family in the Process of Commitment within the Unification Movement." In The Family and the Unification Church (item 709), pp. 23-33.

1505. Anthony, Dick, and Thomas Robbins. "Contemporary Religious Ferment and Moral Ambiguity." In New Religious Movements: A Perspective for Understanding Society (item 1519), pp. 243-63.

1506. __. "The Effect of Detente on the Growth of New Religions: Reverend Moon and the Unification Church." In Understanding the New Religions (item 1590), pp. 80-100.

1507. __. "Spiritual Innovation and the Crisis of American Civil Religion." Daedalus 3 (Winter 1982): 215-34.

1508. Austin, Roy. "Empirical Adequacy of Lofland's Conversion Model." Review of Religious Research 18 (1977): 282-87.

1509. Barker, Eileen. "Confessions of a Methodological Schizophrenic: Problems Encountered in the Study of Sun Myung Moon's Unification Church." Institute for the Study of Worship and Religious Architecture Research Bulletin (1978): 70-89.

1510. __. "Doing Love: Tensions in the Ideal Family." In The Family and the Unification Church (item 709), pp. 35-52.

1511. __. "Living the Divine Principle: Inside the Reverend Sun Myung Moon's Unification Church in Britain." Archives de Sciences Sociales des Religions 45 (1978): 75-93.

1512. __. The Making of a Moonie: Choice or Brainwashing? Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984. 305 pp.

1513. __. "The Ones Who Got Away: People Who Attend Unification Church Workshops and Do Not Become Moonies." In Of Gods and Men: New Religious Movements in the West (item 1520), pp. 309 36.

1514. __. "Sun Myung Moon and the Scientists." The Teilhard Review 14 (Spring 1979): 35-37.

1515. __. "Supping with the Devil: How Long a Spoon Does the Sociologist Need?" Sociological Analysis 44 (Fall 1983): 197-206.

1516. __. "Who'd Be a Moonie? A Comparative Study of Those Who Join the Unification Church in Britain." In The Social Impact of New Religious Movements (item 732), pp. 59-96.

1517. __. "Whose Service is a Perfect Freedom: The Concept of Spiritual Well-Being in Relation to the Reverend Moon's Unification Church in Britain." In Spiritual Well-Being, edited by David O. Moberg, 153-71. Washington, D.C.: University Press of America, 1979.

1518. __. "With Enemies Like That...: Some Functions of Deprogramming as an Aid to Sectarian Membership." In The Brainwashing / Deprogramming Controversy: Sociological, Psychological, Legal and Historical Perspectives (item 1536), pp. 329-44.

1519. __, ed. New Religious Movements: A Perspective for Understanding Society. New York: Edwin Mellen, 1982. 398 pp.

Contains items 1505, 1522, 1542, 1557, 1576.

1520. __. Of Gods and Men: New Religious Movements in the West. Macon, Ga.: Mercer University, 1983.

Contains items 1513, 1525, 1594, 1665.

1521. Beckford, James. "Accounting for Conversion." British Journal of Sociology 29 (1978): 249-62.

1522. __. "Beyond the Pale: Cults, Culture and Conflict." In New Religious Movements: A Perspective for Understanding Society (item 1519), pp. 284-301.

1523. __. "'Brainwashing' and 'Deprogramming' in Britain: The Social Sources of Anti-Cult Sentiment." In The Brainwashing / Deprogramming Controversy: Sociological, Psychological, Legal and Historical Perspectives (item 1536), pp. 122-38.

1524. __. Cult Controversies: The Societal Response to New Religious Movements. London: Tavistock, 1985. 327 pp.

1525. __. "The 'Cult Problem' in Five Countries: The Social Construction of Religious Controversy." In Of Gods and Men: New Religious Movements in the West (item 1520), pp. 195-214.

1526. __. "A Korean Evangelist Movement in the West." In The Contemporary Metamorphosis of Religion? Acts of the 12th International Conference on Sociology of Religion, 319-35, The Hague, 1973.

1527. __. "Some Questions about the Relationship between Scholars and the New Religious Movements." Sociological Analysis 44 (Fall 1983): 189-96.

1528. __. "Through the Looking Glass and Out the Other Side: Withdrawal from Rev. Moon's Unification Church." Archives des Sciences Sociales Des Religions 45 (January-March 1978): 95-116.

1529. __. "Two Contrasting Types of Sectarian Organization." In Sectarianism, edited by Roy Wallis, 70-85. New York: Wiley, 1975.

1530. __. "A Typology of Family Responses to a New Religious Movement." In Cults and the Family (item 1569), pp. 41-55.

1531. Beckford, James A., and James T. Richardson. "A Bibliography of Social Scientific Studies of New Religious Movements." Social Forces 30 (1983): 11-35.

1532. Bedell, George C., Leo Sandon, Jr. and Charles T. Wellborn. "The Restoration of True Family." In Religion in America. 2nd ed., 511-16. New York: Macmillan, 1982.

1533. Berger, Alan I. "Hasidism And Moonism: Charisma in the Counterculture." Sociological Analysis 41 (Winter 1980): 375-90.

1534. Bird, Fredrick B., and Frances Westley. "The Economic Strategies of New Religious Movements." Sociological Analysis 46 (Summer 1985): 157-70.

1535. Bromley, David G. "Financing the Millennium: The Economic Structure of the Unificationist Movement." Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 24 (September 1985): 253-74.

1536. Bromley, David G., and James T. Richardson. The Brainwashing / Deprogramming Controversy: Sociological, Psychological, Legal and Historical Perspectives. New York: Edwin Mellen, 1983. 367 pp.

Contains items 1518, 1523, 1546, 1631, 1636, 1643, 1685, 1718.

1537. Bromley, David G., and Anson D. Shupe, Jr. "Evolving Foci in Participant Observation: Research as an Emergent Process." In The Social Experience of Fieldwork, edited by W. Shaffir, A. Turowetz and R. Stebbins, 191-203. New York: St. Martin's, 1980.

1538. __. "Financing the New Religions: A Research Mobilization Approach." Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 19 (1980): 227-39.

1539. __. "Just a Few Years Seems Like a Lifetime: A Role Theory Approach to Participation in Religious Movements." In Research in Social Movements, Conflict and Change, edited by Louis Kriesburg, 159-85. Greenwich, Conn.: JAI, 1979.

1540. __. Moonies in America: Cult, Church, and Crusade. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1979. 268 pp.

1541. __. "Repression and the Decline of Social Movements: The Case of the New Religions." In Social Movements in the Sixties and Seventies, edited by Jo Freeman, 335-47. New York: Longman, 1983.

1542. Bromley, David G., Bruce C. Busching, and Anson D. Shupe, Jr. "The Unification Church and the American Family: Strain, Conflict and Control." In New Religious Movements: A Perspective for Understanding Society (item 1519), pp. 302-11.

1543. Bromley, David G., Anson D. Shupe, Jr., and Bruce C. Busching. "Repression of Religious Cults." In Research in Social Movements, Conflict and Change, edited by Louis Kriesberg, 25 45. Greenwich, Conn.: JAI, 1981.

1544. Bromley, David G., Anson D. Shupe, Jr., and Donna L. Oliver. "Perfect Families: Visions of the Future in a New Religious Movement." In Cults and the Family (item 1569), pp. 119-29.

1545. Bromley, David G., Anson D. Shupe, Jr., and Joseph C.. Ventimiglia. "Atrocity Tales, the Unification Church and the Social Construction of Evil." Journal of Communication 29 (Summer 1979): 42-53.

1546. __. "The Role of Anecdotal Atrocities in the Social Construction of Evil." In The Brainwashing / Deprogramming Controversy: Sociological, Psychological, Legal and Historical Perspectives (item 1536), pp. 139-60.

1547. Bryant, M. Darrol. "Media Ethics: The Elimination of Perspective." In New Religions and Mental Health: Understanding the Issues (item 1678), pp. 69-73.

1548. Choi, Syn Duk. "Korea's Tong-II Movement." Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, Korea Branch 43 (1967): 167-80.

1549. Cozin, Mark. "A Millenniarian Movement in Korea and Great Britain." In A Sociological Yearbook of Religion in Great Britain, no. 6, edited by Michael Hill, 100-121. London: S.C.M. Press, 1973.

1550. Dole, Arthur A., and Steve K. Dubrow-Eichel. "Moon over Academe." Journal of Religion and Health 20 (Spring 1981): 35 40.

1551. Ellwood, Robert S., Jr. "The Unified Family." In Religious and Spiritual Groups in Modern America, 291-95. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1973.

1552. Feige, Diana Muxworthy. "Relations in Progress: Paradigm for Education and the Family." In The Family and the Unification Church (item 709), pp. 195-215.

* Fichter, Joseph. The Holy Family of Father Moon. Cited above as item 1033.

1553. __. "Home Church: Alternative Parish." In Alternatives to American Mainline Churches (item 705), pp. 179-99.

* __, ed. Alternatives to American Mainline Churches. Cited above as item 705.

1554. Flinn, Jane Zeni. "Three Models of Family: Marriage Encounter, Parenting for Peace and Justice, Blessed Family." In The Family and the Unification Church (item 709), pp. 105-20.

* Gallup, George, and Daniel Poling "The Yearnings of Youth." Chap. 1 in The Search for America's Faith. Cited above as item 824.

1555. Grace, James H. Sex and Marriage in the Unification Movement: A Sociological Study. New York: Edwin Mellen, 1985. 284 pp.

1556. Hampshire, A.P., and James A. Beckford. "Religious Sects and the Concept of Deviance: The Mormons and the Moonies." British Journal of Sociology 34 (June 1983): 208-29.

1557. Hardin, Bert L. and Guenter Kehrer. "Some Social Factors Affecting the Rejection of New Belief Systems." In New Religious Movements: A Perspective for Understanding Society (item 1519), pp. 267-83.

1558. Hargrove, Barbara. "New Religious Movements and the End of the Age." The Iliff Review 34 (Spring 1982): 41-52.

1559. __. "On Studying the Moonies as a Political Act." Religious Studies Review 8 (July 1982): 209-13.

1560. __. "Some Thoughts about the Unification Movement and the Churches." In Science, Sin and Sponsorship: The Politics of Reverend Moon and the Unification Church (item 1567), pp. 86 100.

1561. Harper, Charles L. "Cults and Communities: The Community Interfaces of Three Marginal Religious Movements." Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 21 (March 1982): 26-38.

1562. Horowitz, Irving. "The Politics of New Cults: Non-Prophetic Observations on Science, Sin and Sponsorship." Soundings 62 (Summer 1979): 209-19.

1563. __. "A Reply to Critics and Crusaders." Sociological Analysis 44 (Fall 1983): 221-26.

1564. __. "Sun Myung Moon: Missionary to Western Civilization." In Science, Sin and Scholarship: The Politics of Reverend Moon and the Unification Church (item 1567), pp. iv-viii.

1565. __. "Topsy-turvy Preview: Response to John Lofland." Canadian Journal of Sociology 5 (1980): 163-64.

1566. __. "Universal Standards, Not Uniform Beliefs: Further Reflections on Scientific Method and Religious Sponsors." Sociological Analysis 44 (Fall 1983): 179-82.

1567. __, ed. Science, Sin, and Scholarship: The Politics of Reverend Moon and the Unification Church. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1978. 290 pp.

Contains items 1172, 1324, 1560, 1564, 1709, 1812.

1568. Judah 1. Stillson. "Belief and Behavior: Some Thoughts on the Dynamics of New Religious Movements Like the Unification Church." In Lifestyle: Conversations with Members of the Unification Church (item 721), pp. 185-96.

1569. Kaslow, Florence, and Marvin Sussman. "Cults and the Family." New York: Haworth, 1982. Reprinted from Marriage and Family Review 4 (Fall-Winter 1981).

Contains items 1221, 1530, 1544, 1617, 1653.

1570. Kilbourne, Brock K. "The Conway and Siegelman Claims against Religious Cults: An Assessment of Their Data." Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 22 (1983): 380-85.

1571. __, ed. Scientific Research and New Religions. San Francisco: Pacific Division of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1985. 180 pp.

1572. Kilbourne, Brock K., and James T. Richardson. "Psychotherapy and New Religions in a Pluralistic Society." American Psychologist 39 (March 1984): 237-51.

1573. Kim, Byong-Suh. "Ideology, Conversion and Faith Maintenance in a Korean Sect: The Case of the Unified Family of Rev. Sun Myung Moon." Korean Christian Scholars Review 2 (Spring 1977): 8-59.

1574. __. "Religious Deprogramming and Subjective Reality." Sociological Analysis 40 (Fall 1979): 197-207.

1575. Kim, Chong Sun. Rev. Sun Myung Moon. Washington, D.C.: University Press, 1978. 156 pp.

1576. Lewis, Warren. "Coming Again: How Society Functions through Its New Religions." In New Religious Movements: A Perspective for Understanding Society (item 1519), pp. 191-215.

1577. Lofland, John. "'Becoming a World-Saver' Revisited." American Behavioral Scientist 20 (July-August 1977): 805-18.

1578. __. "Divine Principles." In Man, Myths and Magic. vol. 5, edited by Richard Cavendish, 661-63. New York: Marshall Cavendish Corporation, 1970.

1579. __. Doomsday Cult: A Study of Conversion, Proselytization, and Maintenance of Faith. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1966. 276 pp.

1580. __. Doomsday Cult: A Study of Conversion, Proselytization, and Maintenance of Faith. Enlarged ed. New York: Irvington, 1977, 1981. 362 pp.

1581. __. "The Larger Challenge." Canadian Journal of Sociology 5 (1980): 165-68.

1582. __. Protest: Studies of Collective Bahavior and Social Movements. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1985. 349 pp.

1583. __. "White-hot Mobilization: Strategies of a Millennarian Movement." In The Dynamics of Social Movements, edited by Mayer N. Zald and John D. McCarthy, 157-66. Cambridge, Mass.: Winthrop, 1979.

1584. Lofland, John, and Norman Skonovd. "Conversion Motifs." Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 20 (December 1981): 373-85.

1585. Lofland, John, and Rodney Stark. "Becoming a World-Saver." American Sociological Review 30 (December 1965): 862-74.

1586. Long, Theodore E., and Jeffrey K. Hadden. "Religious Conversion and the Concept of Socialization: Integrating the Brainwashing and Drift Models." Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 22 (March 1983): 1-14.

1587. Lynch, F. R. "Field Research and Future History: Problems Posed for Ethnographic Sociologists by the 'Doomsday Cult' Making Good." American Sociologist 12 (May 1977): 80-88.

1588. Melton, J. Gordon. "The Holy Spirit Association for the Unification of World Christianity." In The Encyclopedia of American Religions, 225-27. Wilmington, N.C.: McGrath, 1978.

1589. Mickler, Michael L. "Crisis of Single Adults: An Alternative Approach." In The Family and the Unification Church (item 709), pp. 161-73.

1590. Needleman, Jacob, and George Baker, eds. Understanding the New Religions. New York: Seabury, 1978. 314 pp.

Contains items 1506, 1701.

1591. Paik, Chull. "Sun Myung Moon--The Man and His Cultural and Artistic Genius." In Sun Myung Moon: The Man and His Ideal (item 675), pp. 11-63.

1592. Richardson, James T. "A Comparison between Jonestown and Other Cults." In Violence and Religious Commitment, edited by Ken Levi, 21-34. University Park, Pa.: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982.

1593. "Financing the New Religions." Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 21 (September 1982): 255-68.

1594. __. "Financing the New Religions: A Broader View." In Of Gods and Men: New Religious Movements in the West (item 1520), pp. 65-88.

1595. __. "New Religious Movements in the United States: A Review." Social Compass 30 (1983): 85-110.

1596. __. "Psychological and Psychiatric Studies of New Religions." In Advances in Psychology of Religion, edited by Lawrence Brown. New York: Pergmon, 1985.

1597. Robbins, Thomas. "The Beach is Washing Away: Controversial Religion and the Sociology of Religion." Sociological Analysis 44 (Fall 1983): 207-14.

1598. __. Civil Liberties, "Brainwashing" and "Cults": A Select Annotated Bibliography. Berkeley, Calif.: Center for the Study of New Religious Movements, Graduate Theological Union, 1981. 32 pp.

1599. __. "Constructing Cultist 'Mind Control.' " Sociological Analysis 45 (1984): 241-56.

1600. __. "Government Regulatory Powers and Church Autonomy: Deviant Groups as Test Cases." Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 24 (September 1985): 237-52.

1601. __. "New Religious Movements on the Frontier of Church and State." In Cults, Culture and the Law (item 1612), pp. 3-27.

1602. __. "Nuts, Sluts and Converts: Studying Religious Groups as Social Problems: A Comment" Sociological Analysis 46 (Summer 1985): 171-78.

1603. __. "Sociological Studies of New Religious Movements: A Selective Review." Religious Studies Review 9 (1983): 233-39.

1604. Robbins, Thomas, and Dick Anthony. "Brainwashing and the Persecution of 'Cults.' " Journal of Religion and Health 19 (Spring 1980): 66-69.

1605. __. " 'Cults,' 'Brainwashing,' and Counter-Subversion." The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 446 (November 1979): 78-90.

1606. __. "'Cults' vs. 'Shrinks': Psychiatry and the Control of Religious Movements." In New Religions and Mental Health: Understanding the Issues (item 1678), pp. 48-68.

1607. __. "Deprograming, Brainwashing and the Medicalization of Deviant Religious Groups." Social Problems 29 (February 1982): 283-97.

1608. __. "The Limits of Coercive Persuasion as an Explanation for Conversion to Authoritarian Sects." Political Psychology 2 (1980): 27-37.

1609. __. "The Sociology of Contemporary Religious Movements." Annual Review of Sociology 5 (1979): 75-89.

1610. __, eds. In Gods We Trust: New Patterns of Religious Pluralism in America. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1981. 338 pp.

Contains items 1628, 1684.

1611. Robbins, Thomas, Dick Anthony, and James T. Richardson. "Theory and Research on Today's 'New Religions.' " Sociological Analysis 39 (1978): 95-122.

1612. Robbins, Thomas, William C. Shepherd, and James McBride. Cults, Culture and the Law. Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1985. 238 pp.

Contains items 1601, 1671.

1613. Robbins, Thomas, Dick Anthony, Madeline Doucas, and Thomas Curtis. "The Last Civil Religion: Reverend Moon and the Unification Church." Sociological Analysis 37 (Summer 1976): 111-25.

1614. Robertson, Roland. "Scholarship, Partisanship, Sponsorship and 'The Moonie Problem': A Comment." Sociological Analysis 46 (Summer 1985): 179-84.

1615. Sandon, Leo, Jr. "Responding to the New Cult Politics." Soundings 62 (Fall 1979): 323-28.

1616. Sawatsky, Rodney. "The Unification Church: Some Preliminary Suggestions for Social and Scientific Analysis." In Exploring Unification Theology (item 697), pp. 131-37.

1617. Schwartz, Lita Linzer, and Florence W. Kaslow. "The Cult Phenomenon: Historical, Sociological and Familial Factors Contributing to Their Development and Appeal." In Cults and the Family (item 1569), pp. 3-30.

1618. Sheen, Doh Sung. "Sun Myung Moon--His Philosophy and Leadership." In Sun Myung Moon: The Man and His Ideal (item 675), pp. 105-38.

1619. Shupe, Anson D., Jr. Six Perspectives on New Religions: A Case Study Approach. New York: Edwin Mellen, 1981. 235 pp.

1620. Shupe, Anson D., Jr, and David G. Bromley. "Apostates and Atrocity Stories: Some Parameters in the Dynamics of Deprogramming." In The Social Impact of New Religious Movements (item 732), pp. 179-215.

1621. __. "The Archetypal Cult: Conflict and the Social Construction of Deviance." In The Family and the Unification Church (item 709), pp. 1-22.

1622. __. A Documentary History of the Anti-Cult Movement. New York: Edwin Mellen, 1984.

1623. __. "The Moonies and the Anti-Cultists: Movement and Countermovement in Conflict." Sociological Analysis 40 (Winter 1979): 325-34.

1624. __. The New Vigilantes: Deprogrammers, Anti-Cultists, and the New Religions. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1980. 267 pp.

1625. __. "Reverse Missionizing: Sun Myung Moon's Unification Church in the United States." Free Inquiry in Creative Sociology 8 (November 1980): 197-203.

1626. __. "Shaping the Public Response to Jonestown: People's Temple and the Anticult Movement." In Violence and Religious Commitment, edited by Ken Levi, 105-32. University Park, Pa.: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982.

1627. __. "Walking a Tightrope: Dilemmas of Participant Observation in Groups in Conflict." Qualitative Sociology 2 (January 1980): 3 21.

1628. "Witches, Moonies and Accusations of Evil. In In Gods We Trust: New Patterns of Religious Pluralism in America (item 1610), pp. 247-61.

1629. Shupe, Anson D., Jr., David G. Bromley, and Donna L. Oliver. The Anti-Cult Movement in America: A Bibliographic and Historical Survey. New York: Garland, 1984. 169 pp.

1630. Shupe, Anson D. Jr., Roger Spielmann, and Sam Stigall. "Deprogramming: The New Exorcism." American Behavioral Scientist 20 (Summer 1977): 941-56.

1631. Skonovd, Norman. "Leaving the Cultic Religious Milieu." In The Brainwashing / Deprogramming Controversy: Sociological, Psychological, Legal and Historical Perspectives (item 1536), pp. 91-105.

1632. Spurgin, Hugh, and Nora Spurgin. "Blessed Marriage in the Unification Church: Sacramental Ideals and Their Application to Daily Marital Life." In The Family and the Unification Church (item 709), pp. 121-37.

1633. Stark, Rodney, and William Sims Bainbridge. The Future of Religion: Secularization, Revival and Cult Formation. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985. 571 pp.

1634. Stewart, Therese, and Henry O. Thompson. "Unification Theological Seminary." In Unity in, Diversity: Essays in Religion by Members of the Faculty of the Unification Theological Seminary (item 728), pp. 425-31.

1635. Taylor, David. "Becoming New People: The Recruitment of Young Americans into the Unification Church." In Millennialism and Charisma, edited by Roy Wallis, 177-230. Belfast, Ireland: The Queen's University, 1982.

1636. __. "Thought Reform and the Unification Church." In The Brainwashing / Deprogramming Controversy: Sociological, Psychological, Legal and Historical Perspectives (item 1536), pp. 73-90.

1637. Testa, Bart. "It Would Have Been Nice To Hear from You.... On fifth estate's 'Moonstruck.''' In New Religions and Mental Health: Understanding the Issues (item 1678), pp. 74-80.

1638. __. "Making Crime Seem Natural: The Press and Deprograming." In A Time for Consideration: A Scholarly Appraisal of the Unification Church (item 1412), pp. 41-81.

1639. Wallis, Roy. The Elementary Forms of the New Religious Life. London, England: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984. 156 pp.

1640. __. "Religion, Reason and Responsibility: A Reply to Professor Horowitz." Sociological Analysis 44 (Fall 1983): 215-20.

1641. Weightman, Judith M. "A Sociological Perspective on the Doctrine of Indemnity." In Restoring the Kingdom (item 703), pp. 113-22.

1642. Wilson, Bryan R. "Sympathetic Detachment and Disinterested Involvement: A Note on Academic Integrity." Sociological Analysis 44 (Fall 1983): 183-88.

* __, ed. The Social Impact of New Religious Movements. Cited above as item 732.

1643. Wright, Stuart A. "Defection from New Religious Movements: A Test of Some Theoretical Propositions." In The Brainwashing / Deprogramming Controversy: Sociological, Psychological, Legal and Historical Perspectives (item 1536), pp. 106-21.

1644. Yoon, Se Won. "Sun Myung Moon--His Ideal and Practice." In Sun Myung Moon: The Man and His Ideal (item 675), pp. 139-83.

C. Psychological Perspectives

Scholars and others examining the Unification Church from a psychological point of view divide into three major groupings. The first consists of a small but influential group of physicians and psychiatrists who have assumed an adversarial posture in relation to the Unification Church and other new religious movements (NRMs). Basing their assessments primarily on individual or group therapy with former members, these mental health professionals have discerned a variety of "cult-related" pathologies. Further, they have charged that in recruitment, the Unification Church and other NRMs utilize mind-control or "brainwashing" techniques. Some of these opponents have supported or advocated deprogramming and testified in legal proceedings against the Unification Church. A second group, consisting mainly of sociologists of religion, has criticized the mental pathology model. These critics have sought to discredit brainwashing, expose value-laden and interest-laden premises of opposing psychiatrists, and attack "rescue" attempts as incompatible with U.S. constitutional guarantees. A third group, recognizing the paucity of data and acknowledging discrepancies in reports, has subjected Unification Church members, recruits and exmembers to a battery of standardized tests. Overall, these researchers have found theraputic benefits associated with Unification Church membership but also have pointed out ambiguities and tensions leading to disaffiliation from the Church.

Among those psychiatrists assuming an adversarial role in relation to the Unification Church, the most prominent have been Margaret Singer and John Clark. Although they have addressed questions of "cultism" in general, both have served as "expert" witnesses in court proceedings against and government hearings on the UC. Singer, a research psychiatrist whose background included the study of coercive-persuasion ("brainwashing") techniques used on American POWs during the Korean War, applied that model to Unification Church recruitment practices. Further, in group sessions with several hundred former "cultists" including former members of the Unification Church, Singer [1681] identified such "cult-related" emotional problems as indecisiveness, slipping into altered states, blurring of mental acuity and uncritical passivity. Clark [1645], a clinical psychiatrist associated with Harvard Medical School, concurred in the diagnosis of "destructive cultism as a public health problem and sociopathic illness" (280). Although not psychiatrists, the work of "communication experts" Flo Conway and Jim Seigelman also has been influential. Based on a nationwide survey of 400 former "cult" members from forty-eight groups including the Unification Church, Conway and Seigelman [1648] elaborate what they termed "information disease," a new form of mental illness involving severe disturbance in perception, memory and other information-processing capabilities. Reporting that their data "showed what appeared to be a direct relationship between the number of hours spent per week In cultural and indoctrination and the number of long-term effects," they argued, "deprograming is indeed a vital first step in the road back from cultic mind control" (88,92). Some recent treatments have linked "cult" vulnerability to family pathology [1664, 1679, 1738].

As stated, a second group consisting mainly of sociologists of religion has criticized the mental pathology model. Major contributors have been Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony. In a series of articles including "Brainwashing and the Persecution of 'Cults' " [1604], " 'Cults' vs. 'Shrinks'" [1606], and "Deprogramming, Brainwashing, and the Medicalization of Deviant Religious Groups" [1607], Robbins and Anthony attempted to discredit brainwashing, expose underlying biases, and oppose counter-indoctrination. In so doing, they criticized adversarial treatments for relying solely on retrospective accounts of former members (many of whom had been deprogrammed), characterized brainwashing as "a mystifying and inherently subjective metaphor" and noted expanded vocational opportunities for mental health workers in "religious deprogramming and auxiliary services for the 'rehabilitation' of cultists and ex-cultists." In a separate article, Robbins [1599] asserted, "Arguments in this highly subjective area are too often mystifications which embellish values and biases with the aura of value free science and clinical objectivity" (253). For related critiques, see Kilbourne and Richardson [1572], J. Richardson [1596], Shupe et al. [1630], and H. Richardson [1678].

Given the paucity of research data and conflicting arguments, some scholars began collecting more data and subjecting NRM adherents to standardized personality tests. The most widely cited studies on Unification Church members, recruits and ex-members were conducted by Marc Galanter. In his earliest and most widely cited article, "The Moonies: A Psychological Study of Conversion and Membership in a Contemporary Religious Sect" [1660], Galanter and associates administered a 216-item coded questionnaire to 237 native-born American Church members. They reported that while a sizeable percentage (39%) felt they had serious emotional problems in the past, "Affiliation with the Unification Church apparently provided considerable and sustained relief from neurotic distress" (168). However, these members' "general well-being scores were significantly below the mean for the age and sex-matched comparison group" (167). Galanter reported similar findings for new recruits [1656], and in a study of sixty-six former members, Galanter [1658] found that while twenty-three (37%) reported serious emotional problems after leaving, "After an average of 3.8 years the former members studied... had apparently achieved a stable adjustment" with those not deprogrammed retaining "a notable fidelity to the sect and its beliefs" (984). Finally, in a separate study of 321 engaged members of the Unification Church, Galanter [1655] reported, "the abrogation of contemporary norms for mate selection was not associated with increased psychological distress" (1197). See Galanter [1657] and Galanter et al [1659] for discussions of informal Unification Church controls of alcohol and drug use.

Besides Galanter's work, there are a number of other important psychological studies. Alexander Deutsch and Michael J. Miller, in two reports, one a clinical study of four Unification Church members [1651], the other an intensive case study of a single member [1652], attempted to identify "characteristics common to subjects that seemed to presuppose them to the life-style and doctrines of the Unification Church." Wolfgang Kuner [1665], in administering the Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory (MMPI) to 303 German Unification Church members and to over 200 adherents of two other NRMs, reported "the members of these new movements achieved 'better' scores than the control group of students" (257). At the same time, Kuner noted the NRM samples "reveal narcissistic traits and a need for social appreciation." Stuart A. Wright [1689], in a study of forty-five voluntary defectors from the Unification Church and two other NRMs reported "a finding which clearly emerges from the data is the disconfirmation of any support for brainwashing" (181). Consonant with this, in an earlier study of 100 former members of the Unification Church, sixty-five of whom had been deprogrammed, Trudy Solomon [1684] concluded "Conceptualization of the Moonie experience was found to vary as a function of the method of exit and degree of contact with the anti-cult movement" (287). On the other hand, Solomon reported an "unexpected sex effect in the data--females were more negative about their experience as members than males" (289). For a discussion of alleged sexism in the Unification Church and other groups, see Janet Jacob's "The Economy of Love: The Deconversion of Women from Non-Traditional Religious Movements" [1662].

1645. Clark, John G., Jr. "Cults." Journal of the American Medical Association 242 (July 20, 1979): 179-81.

1646. Clark, John G., Jr., Michael D. Langone, Robert E. Schecter, and Roger C. B. Daly. Destructive Cult Conversion: Theory, Research and Treatment. Weston, Mass.: American Family Foundation, 1981. 84 pp.

1647. Coleman, Lee. Psychiatry: The Faith Breaker. Sacramento, Calif.: Printing Dynamics, 1982. 40 pp.

1648. Conway, Flo, and Siegelman, Jim. "Information Disease: Have Cults Created a New Mental Illness?" Science Digest 90 (January 1982): 86-92.

1649. Dean, Roger Allen. "Youth: Moonies' Target Population." Adolescence 17 (Fall 1982): 567-74.

1650. DeMaria, Richard. "A Psycho-Social Analysis of Conversion." In A Time for Consideration: A Scholarly Appraisal of the Unification Church (item 1412), pp. 82-130.

1651. Deutsch, Alexander, and Michael J. Miller. "Clinical Study of Four Unification Church Members." American Journal of Psychiatry 140 (June 1983): 767-70.

1652. __. "Conflict, Character and Conversion: Study of a 'New Religion' Member." In Adolescent Psychology, vol. 7, edited by Sherman C. Feinstein and Peter L. Giovacchini, 258-68. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979.

1653. Edwards, Christopher. "The Dynamics of Mass Conversion." In Cults and the Family (item 1569), pp. 31-40.

1654. Feinstein, Sherman C. "The Cult Phenomenon: Transition, Repression and Regression." In Adolescent Psychiatry, vol. 8, edited by Sherman C. Feinstein, Peter L. Giovacchini, John G. Looney, Allan Z. Schwartzberg and Arthur D. Sorosky, 113-22. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980.

1655. Galanter, Marc. "Engaged Members of the Unification Church." Archives of General Psychiatry 40 (November 1983): 1197-1202.

1656. __. "Psychological Induction into a Large Group: Findings from a Modem Religious Sect." American Journal of Psychiatry 137 (December 1980): 1574-79.

1657. __. "Sociobiology and Informal Controls of Drinking: Findings from Two Charismatic Sects." Journal of Studies on Alcohol 42 (January 1981): 64-79.

1658. __. "Unification Church (Moonie) Dropouts: Psychological Readjustment after Leaving a Charismatic Religious Group." American Journal of Psychiatry 140 (August 1983): 984-89.

1659. Galanter, Marc, Buckley, Peter, Alexander Deutsch, Richard Rabkin and Judith Rabkin. "Large Group Influence for Decreased Drug Use: Findings from Two Contemporary Religious Sects." American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 7 (1980): 291-304.

1660. Galanter, Marc, Richard Rabkin, Judith Rabkin, and Alexander Deutsch. "The Moonies: A Psychological Study of Conversion and Membership in a Contemporary Religious Sect." American Journal of Psychiatry 136 (February 1979): 165-70.

1661. Galanti, Geri-Ann. "Brainwashing and the Moonies." Cultic Studies Journal 1 (May 1984): 27-36.

1662. Jacobs, Janet. "The Economy of Love in Religious Commitment: The Deconversion of Women from Non-traditional Religious Movements." Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 23 (June 1984): 155-71.

1663. Jeong, Han Tack. "A Psychological Study of Spiritual Consciousness." In Research on the Unification Principle: Research of Korean Scholars on Unification Theology (item 723), pp. 185-95.

1664. Kaslow, Florence, and Lita Linzer Schwartz. "Vulnerability and Invulnerability to the Cults: An Assessment of Family Dynamics, Functioning and Values." In Marital and Family Therapy: New Perspectives in Theory, Research and Practice, edited by Dennis A. Bagarozzi, Anthony P. Jurich, and Robert W. Jackson, 165 90. New York: Human Sciences, 1983.

* Kilbourne, Brock K. "The Conway and Siegelman Claims against Religious Cults: An Assessment of Their Data." Cited above as item 1570.

* __, ed. Scientific Research and New Religions. Cited above as item 1571.

* Kilbourne, Brock, and James T. Richardson. "Psychotherapy and New Religions in a Pluralistic Society." Cited above as item 1572.

1665. Kuner, Wolfgang. "New Religious Movements and Mental Health." In Of Gods and Men: New Religious Movements in the West (item 1520), pp. 255-63.

1666. Levine, Edward M. "Religious Cults: Their Implications for Society and the Democratic Process." Political Psychology (Fall-Winter 1981-82): 34-49.

1667. Levine, Saul V. "Cults and Mental Health: Clinical Conclusions." Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 26 (December 1981): 534-39.

1668. __. "The Role of Psychiatry in the Phenomenon of Cults." In Adolescent Psychiatry, vol. 8, edited by Sherman C. Feinstein, Peter L. Giovacchini, John G. Looney, Allan Z. Schwartzberg and Arthur D. Sorosky, 123-37. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980.

1669. __. "Youth and Religious Cults: A Societal and Clinical Dilemma." In Adolescent Psychiatry, vol. 6, edited by Sherman C. Feinstein and Peter L. Giovacchini, 75-89. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978.

1670. Levine, Saul V., and Nancy E. Salter. "Youth and Contemporary Religious Movements: Psychosocial Findings." Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal 21 (October 1976): 411-20.

1671. Lifton, Robert J. "Cult Processes, Religious Totalism, and Civil Liberties." In Cults, Culture, and the Law (item 1612), pp. 59-70.

1672. McGowan, Thomas. "Conversion and Human Development." In New Religions and Mental Health: Understanding the Issues (item 1678), pp. 127-73.

1673. Maher, Brendon A., and Michael D. Langone. "Kilbourne on Conway and Siegelman: A Statistical Critique." Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 24 (September 1985): 325-26.

1674. Maleson, Franklin G. "Dilemmas in the Evaluation and Management of Religious Cultists." American Journal of Psychiatry 138 (1981): 925-29.

1675. Mosatche, Harriet S. Searching: Practices and Beliefs of the Religious Cults and Human Potential Groups. New York: Stravon Educational Press, 1984. 237 pp.

1676. Richardson, Herbert. "Critique of the Goelters Report." In New Religions and Mental Health: Understanding the Issues (item 1678), pp. 90-105.

1677. __. "Mental Health, Conversion, and the Law." In New Religions and Mental Health: Understanding the Issues (item 1678), pp. ix-Iv.

1678. __, ed. New Religions and Mental Health: Understanding the Issues. New York: Edwin Mellen, 1980. 177 pp.

Contains items 1547, 1606, 1637, 1672, 1676-77.

* Richardson, James T. "Psychological and Psychiatric Studies of New Religions." Cited above as item 1596.

* Robbins, Thomas. "Constructing Cultist 'Mind Control.'" Cited above as item 1599.

* Robbins, Thomas, and Dick Anthony. "Brainwashing and the Persecution of 'Cults.' " Cited above as item 1604.

* __. "'Cults,' 'Brainwashing,' and Counter Subversion." Cited above as item 1605.

* __. "'Cults' vs. 'Shrinks': Psychiatry and the Control of Religious Movements." Cited above as item 1606.

* __. "Deprogramming, Brainwashing and the Medicalization of Deviant Religious Groups." Cited above as item 1607.

* __. "The Limits of Coercive Persuasion as an Explanation for Conversion to Authoritarian Sects." Cited above as item 1608.

* Robbins, Thomas, Dick Anthony, and Jim McCarthy. "Legitimating Repression." Cited above as item 1133.

1679. Schwartz, Lita Linzer, and Florence W. Kaslow. "Religious Cults, the Individual, and the Family." Journal of Marital and Family Therapy 5 (1979): 15-26.

1680. Schwartz, Lita Linzer, and Jacqueline L. Zemel. "Religious Cults: Family Concerns and the Law." Journal of Marital and Family Therapy 6 (1980): 301-8

1681. Singer, Margaret. "Coming Out of the Cults." Psychology Today 12 (January 1979): 72-82.

1682. __. "Therapy with Ex-Cult Members." American Association of Private Psychological Hospitals Journal 9 (Summer 1978): 14-18.

1683. Slade, Margot. "New Religious Groups: Membership and Legal Battles." Psychology Today 12 (January 1979): 81.

1684. Solomon, Trudy. "Integrating the Moonie Experience." In In Gods We Trust: New Patterns of Religious Pluralism in America (item 1610), pp. 275-94.

1685. __. "Programming and Deprogramming the Moonies: Brainwashing Revisited." In The Brainwashing / Deprogramming Controversy: Sociological, Psychological, Legal, and Historical Perspectives (item 1536), pp. 163-82.

1686. Stewart, Therese. "Unification and the Middle Years." In Unity in Diversity: Essays in Religion by Members of the Faculty of the Unification Theological Seminary (item 728), pp. 241-54.

1687. Sunden, H. "Tong-il: Some Observations on a Central Problem in the Psychology of Religion." Scriptu Instituti Donneriani Aboensis 7 (1974): 175-88.

1688. Verdier, Paul A. Brainwashing and the Cults. North Hollywood, Calif.: Wilshire, 1977. 117 pp.

1689. Wright, Stuart. "Post-Involvement Attitudes of Voluntary Defectors from Controversial New Religious Movements." Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 23 (June 1984): 172-82.

D. Legal Studies

Controversy over the Unification Church and other new religious movements (NRMs) has spawned a whole series of legal issues ranging from tax exemption and public solicitation privileges to health and child-rearing practices, immigration rights and zoning ordinances. The most important and constitutionally significant of these issues, however, involved efforts of parents and their agents to remove adherents from various groups. In particular, legal scholars have reflected on the legality and constitutionality of extra-legal and state-sanctioned deprogrammings. The Unification Church, because it has been a prime target of deprogrammers and because it sought relief through the courts, has been at the center of this controversy. In general, on the basis of free exercise and civil rights provisions of the United States Constitution, the weight of legal opinion has run against involuntary deprogramming. Proponents of the practice have attempted to override these provisions on the basis of "compelling state interest."

The most forceful proponent of legalized controls over the Unification Church and other NRMs has been Richard Delgado. His basic position, developed in a major article, "Religious Totalism: Gentle and Ungentle Persuasion under the First Amendment" [1697], is based on the distinction between freedom of belief and freedom of action. Freedom of belief, Delgado asserted, is absolute, but freedom of action, in the nature of things, cannot be. Drawing on this belief faction dichotomy, Delgado argued that the state's interest in restricting religious activities derives from individual and social harms presented by religious practices. In the case of the Unification Church and other NRMs, he described those harms as "serious enough to warrant serious judicial concern." At the same time, Delgado acknowledged that the U.S. legal system is reluctant to impose restraints on "self-regarding actions of competent adults." Thus, the crux of his discussion hinged on the question of voluntariness or informed consent which he saw as being undermined in the Unification Church and other groups by coercion, deception and inducement of mental or physical debility. Further, in "drawing the line" between "those techniques of persuasion which are necessarily tolerated by society and those which are so harmful as to be unacceptable," Delgado stated, "There appear to be no insuperable constitutional, moral, or public policy obstacles in the way of state or federal action designed to curb the abuses of religious groups that utilize high-pressure, harmful and deceptive tactics in recruiting and indoctrinating young members" (98). Besides deprogramming (using "carefully defined guidelines"), Delgado proposed other remedies such as self-identification by recruiters, mandatory "cooling-off" periods, public education programs, proselytizing prohibitions and state licensing as well as tort, civil and criminal actions against groups as necessary.

Legal scholars and others critical of these measures have criticized Delgado's formulation both in its depiction of NRMs and in its theory of religious freedom. Those criticizing Delgado's depiction of NRMs include scholars who have discerned an alternate "fact pattern." These commentators preferred to set the Unification Church and other NRMs within a history of religions perspective and faulted Delgado for relying on adversarial psychiatric testimony, ex-member accounts and journalistic treatments at odds with more reputable scholarship. According to one critic [1690], "the cogency of Delgado's article breaks down once the selective nature of his citations is understood" (79). Further, as the New York University Law Review [1707] pointed out, "Despite the public ballyhoo over and concern about brainwashing activities, no court that has conducted an evidentiary hearing has found that any religious organization has subjected its adherents to mind control, coercive persuasion or brainwashing" (1281). Other scholars attacked Delgado's belief faction dichotomy as an outdated interpretation of religious freedom claims. William C. Shepherd, for example, in "The Prosecutor's Reach: Legal Issues Stemming From the New Religious Movements" [1719] and To Secure the Blessings of Liberty: American Constitutional Law and the New Religious Movements [1720], noted that by the 1960s the simple belief versus action distinction "could no longer be invoked by itself to solve hard cases of conflict involving genuinely free exercise claims against compelling state interests." Instead, as he pointed out, the courts have institutionalized a complex balancing procedure (the so-called Sherbert-Yoder test) consisting of the following five points:

Are the religious beliefs in question sincerely held?

Are the religious practices under review germane to the religious belief system?

Would carrying out the state's wishes constitute a substantial infringement on the religious practice?

Is the interest of the state compelling? Does the religious practice perpetuate some grave abuse of a statutory prohibition or obligation?

Are there alternative means of regulation by which the state's interest is served but the free exercise of religion is less burdened?

Based, then, on an alternate reading of the "facts" and a balancing formula "designed to accord the free exercise clause substantially greater weight than before," legal scholars have opposed Delgado's remedies, particularly deprogramming.

Extra-legal or "self-help" deprogramming involving abduction, physical restraint and counter-indoctrination proliferated during the seventies for two major reasons. First, parents and deprogrammers usually could rely on tacit, if not open, support from local law enforcement officials. Second, in legal disputes, deprogrammers successfully employed "necessity" defenses--claiming they had violated a law to avoid a greater evil than the law was designed to prevent. However, as necessity defenses traditionally applied only where "forces of nature" compelled action, legal scholars have questioned its extension to cases involving pressure by other individuals [1699, 1704, 1710]. Other scholars noted that deprogrammers face serious risks under current interpretations of U.S. civil rights legislation which has been extended to protect religious as well as racial minorities. See Kimball [1702] and Shepherd [1720] for discussions of cases won on this basis by Unification Church members.

Legalized or state-sanctioned deprogramming became an option in the mid-seventies due to loopholes in certain state statutes which enabled relatives to gain custody of Unification Church and other NRM adherents through temporary conservatorship orders. Frequently granted in ex-parte hearings, this practice flourished until in Katz v. Superior Court [1778] a California appellate court overturned a lower court's ruling that granted temporary conservators hips to parents of five Unification Church members. Based on this decision and subsequent tightening of language in state laws, temporary conservatorships were no longer viable as a deprogramming option by the end of the seventies. The strategy, itself, came under fire from legal scholars on two counts. First, as conservatorship statutes have been designed to protect the property of individuals under a disability, scholars objected to their use in religious deprogrammings as clearly outside the intent of these laws. Second, some scholars opposed the strategy as an unwarranted extension of the "theraputic state." Shepherd [1720], for example, objected to "involuntary civil commitment" as a practice bypassing due process constraints and legal safeguards "even the most hardened criminal may expect as a matter of course" (198).

1690. Anthony, Dick. "The Fact Pattern behind the Deprogramming Controversy: An Analysis and an Alternative." New York University Review of Law and Social Change 9 (Fall 1980): 73 89.

1691. Aronin, Douglas. "Cults, Deprogramming and Guardianship: A Model Legislative Proposal." Columbia Journal of Law and Social Problems 17 (1982): 163-286.

1692. Ashman, Allan. "Civil Rights... 'Deprogramming.' " American Bar Association Journal 87 (November 1981): 1546.

1693. Babbitt, Ellen M. "Deprogramming of Religious Sect Members: A Private Right of Action under Section 1985 (3)." Northwestern University Law Review 74 (April 1979): 229-54.

1694. Brandon, Thomas S., Jr. New Religions, Conversions and Deprogramming: New Frontiers of Religious Liberty. Oak Park, Ill.: Center for Law and Religious Freedom, 1982. 60 pp.

* Commission on Law, Social Action, and Urban Affairs [American Jewish Congress]. The Cults and the Law. Cited above as item 1066.

1695. Delgado, Richard. "Cults and Conversion: The Case for Informed Consent." Georgia Law Review 16 (1982): 533-74.

* "Limits to Proselytizing." Cited above as item 1179.

1696. __. "Religious Totalism as Slavery." New York University Review of Law and Social Change 9 (1979-80): 51-68.

1697. __. "Religious Totalism: Gentle and Ungentle Persuasion under the First Amendment." Southern California Law Review 51 (November 1977): 1-98.

* Eidsmoe, John. "The Christian and the Cults." Cited above as item 809.

1698. Fox, Martin. "Cults and the First Amendment: Constitutional Concerns against Block Efforts to Let Courts Appoint Conservators for Youth." New York Law Journal 184 (October 14, 1980): 1.

* Gillis, John W. "Rev. Sun Myung Moon: 'Heavenly Deception.' " Cited above as item 1204.

1699. Greene, Robert H. "People v. Religious Cults: Legal Guidelines for Criminal Activities, Tort Liability, and Parental Remedies." Suffolk University Law Review 11 (Spring 1977): 1025-56.

1700. Herbert, Carol S. "Constitutional Law-State Regulation of Public Solicitation for Religious Purposes." Wake Forest Law Review 16 (December 1980): 996-1030.

1701. Judah, J. Stillson. "New Religions and Religious Liberty." In Understanding the New Religions (item 1590), pp. 201-8.

1702. Kimball, Matthew L. "Protection of Religious Groups under 42 U.S.C. 1985 (c) (Fourth Circuit Court) (case note) Ward v. Conner 657 F.2d45 (4th Cir. 1981)." Washington and Lee Review 39 (Spring 1982): 555-66.

1703. Lavine, Doug. "Cults and Deprogramming: The Legal Dilemmas." Church and State 32 (January 1979): 23-25.

1704. Lemoult, John. "Deprogramming Members of Religious Sects." Fordham Law Review 46 (March 1978): 599-640.

* Lifton, Robert J. "Cult Processes, Religious Totalism, and Civil Liberties." Cited above as item 1671.

1705. Moore, Joey Peter. "Piercing the Religious Veil of the So-called Cults." Pepperdine Law Review 7 (Spring 1980): 655-710.

1706. Murry, Leslye M. "Parent-child." Journal of Family Law 19 (August 1981): 778-82.

1707. Note. "Conservatorships and Religious Cults: Divining a Theory of Free Exercise." New York University Law Review 53 (December 1978): 1247-89.

1708. Notes. "Cults, Deprogrammers, and the Necessity Defense." Michigan Law Review 80 (December 1981): 271-311.

1709. "On the Civil Liberties of Sect Members (Parts 1 and 2)." In Science, Sin, and Sponsorship: The Politics of Reverend Moon and the Unification Church (item 1567), pp. 192-207.

1710. Pierson, Kit. "Cults, Deprogrammers, and the Necessity Defense." 1600.

* Richardson, Herbert. "Mental Health, Conversion, and the Law." Cited above as item 1677

* Robbins, Thomas. "Government Regulatory Powers and Church Autonomy: Devuiant Groups as Test Cases" Cited above as item 1600.

1711. __. "New Religious Movements, Brainwashing, and Deprogramming--The View from the Law Journals: A Review Essay and Survey." Religious Studies Review 11 (October 1985): 361-70.

* __. "New Religious Movements on the Frontier of Church and State." Cited above as item 1601.

1712. ___ "Religious Movements, the State, and the Law: Reconceptualizing The Cult Problem.' " New York University Review of Law and Social Change 9 (Fall 1980): 33-49.

* Robbins, Thomas, William C. Shepherd, and James McBride. Cults, Culture and the Law. Cited above as item 1612.

1713. Rosenzweig, Charles. "High Demand Sects: Disclosure Legislation and the Free Exercise Clause." New England Law Review 15 (1979): 128-59.

1714. Rudin, Marcia. "The Cult Phenomenon: Fad or Fact?" New York University Review of Law and Social Change 9 (1979-1980): 17 32.

* Schwartz, Lita Linzer, and Jacqueline L. Zemel. "Religious Cults: Family Concerns and the Law." Cited above as item 1680.

1715. Sciarrino, Alfred 1. "United States v. Sun Myung Moon: Precedent for Tax Fraud Prosecution of Local Pastors?" Southern Illinois University Law Journal 2 (1984): 237-81.

1716. Shapiro, Robert N. '''Mind Control' or Intensity of Faith: The Constitutional Protection of Religious Beliefs." Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review 13 (1978): 751-97.

1717. __. "Of Robots, Persons, and the Protection of Religious Beliefs." Southern California Law Review 56 (September 1983): 1277-1318.

1718. Shepherd, William C. "Constitutional Law and Marginal Religions." In The Brainwashing! Deprogramming Controversy: Sociological, Psychological, Legal and Historical Perspectives (item 1536), pp. 258-66.

1719. __. "The Prosecutor's Reach: Legal Issues Stemming from the New Religious Movements." Journal of the American Academy of Religion 50 (June 1982): 187-214.

1720. __. To Secure the Blessings of Liberty: American Constitutional Law and the New Religious Movements. New York and Chico, Calif.: Crossroads and Scholars Press, 1985. 155 pp.

1721. Siegel, Terri I. "Deprogramming Religious Cultists." Loyola University Law Review 11 (September 1978): 807-28.

* Slade, Margot. "New Religious Groups: Membership and Legal Battles." Cited above as item 1683.

1722. Spendlove, Greta. "Legal Issues in the Use of Guardianship Procedures to Remove Members of Cults." Arizona Law Review 18 (1976): 1095-1139.

* "Sun Myung Moon and the Law." Cited above as item 1368.

E. Dissertations, Theses

In addition to published scholarly treatments, there have been a number of dissertations and master theses written on the Church. These are important for at least two reasons. Some have been published in revised form or cited in academic literature. Others too restricted in scope for a wider readership are, nonetheless, useful for specialists on the Unification Church. Doctoral dissertations, primarily analytical in orientation, recapitulate emphases of particular disciplines, especially in the fields of sociology and psychology. M.A. theses are descriptive and frequently cross-disciplinary, examining the Church from several different perspectives.

As stated, dissertations on the Unification Church, most of which have been written from the perspective of sociology or psychology, recapitulate emphases of these disciplines. This is particularly the case for dissertations which have been published in abridged or revised form such as James H. Grace's "Sexuality and Marriage in the Unification Movement" [1725] and John Lofland's "The World-Savers: A Field Study of Cult Processes" [1730). Other dissertations by Dean [1724], Kilbourne [1727], Skonovd [1735], Solomon [1736] and Wright [1737] contain empirical data and findings utilized by these authors in published articles. For comparative analyses, examining the Unification Church in relation to est, contemporary evangelism and Jewish orthodoxy, see Miller [1732], O'Byrne [1733] and Selengut [1734]. Although not a dissertation, David Taylor's "The Social Organization of Recruitment in the Unification Church" [1745] has been cited as an authoritative account of Unification Church recruitment practices in Northern California during the mid-seventies. D. Minn. dissertations differ from the above-listed treatments in that they reflect confessional orientations. Examples are Randall Bayles Bosch's "A Local Church's Study of Its Relationship to the Seminary of the Unification Church" [1723] and Sang Koo Kim's "A Critical Study of the Reverend Sun Myung Moon's Movement" [1728].

Rather than filtering analyses of the Unification Church through the lenses of particular disciplines, M.A. theses tend to be cross-disciplinary, examining the Church from a variety of perspectives. Examples are Young Choon Chang's "The Tongil Kyo: A New Cult in Korea" [1740], Michael L. Mickler's "A History of the Unification Church in the Bay Area: 1960-74" [1742], Carl Rapkins' note on "Contemporary Religious Intensity" [1743], and Mark Savad's "Study of a Modern Religious Movement: The Unification Church" [1744]. See also David Carlson [1739] for a commentary on the "Pledge Service," a worship tradition observed by the UC.

Dissertations

1723. Bosch, Randall Bayles. "A Local Church's Study of Its Relationship to the Seminary of the Unification Church." D.Minn. diss., Princeton Theological Seminary, 1980.

1724. Dean, Roger Allan. "Moonies: A Psychological Analysis of the Unification Church." Ph.D. diss., The University of Michigan, 1981. 248 pp.

1725. Grace, James H. "Sexuality and Marriage in the Unification Movement." Ph.D. diss., Temple University, 1982. 341 pp.

1726. Harrigan, John Edward. "Becoming a Moonie: An Interview Study of Religious Conversion." Ed.D. diss., University of Maine, 1980. 160 pp.

1727. Kilbourne, Brock K. "An Activist Conception of Conversion and Attribution." Ph.D. diss., University of Nevada, Reno, 1983.

1728. Kim, Sang Soo. "A Critical Study of the Rev. Sun Myung Moon's Movement." D.Minn. diss., San Francisco Theological Seminary, 1981.

1729. King, Karen Mae. "The Rhetoric of the New Religious Cults: A Fantasy Theme Analysis of the Rhetoric of the Unification Church." Ph.D. diss., The University of Iowa, 1980. 249 pp.

1730. Lofland, John. "The World-Savers: A Field Study of Cult Processes." Ph.D. diss., The University of California at Berkeley, 1964. 588 pp.

1731. Lukas, Brian N. "Identity Status, Parent-Adolescent Relationships, and Participation in Marginal Religious Groups." Ph.D. diss., The California School of Professional Psychology, 1982. 199 pp.

1732. Miller, Edward V.B. "Authoritarianism: The American Cults and Their Intellectual Antecedents." Ph.D. diss., University of Hawaii, 1981.

1733. O'Byrne, William L. "A Comparative Study of the Hermeneutics of Sun Myung Moon and Contemporary Evangelism as Represented by James Oliver Boswell, Jr." Ph.D. diss., New York University, 1978. 302 pp.

1734. Selengut, Charles. "The Unification Church and Jewish Orthodoxy in America: A Sociological Study of Belief, Lifestyle and Reality Maintenance in the Cognitive Minority Communities." Ph.D. diss., Drew University, 1983. 251 pp.

1735. Skonovd, Norman. "Apostasy: The Process of Defection from Religious Totalism." Ph.D. diss., The University of California at Davis 1981. 201 pp.

1736. Solomon, Trudy. "Deprogramming: Nemesis or Necessity?" Ph.D. diss., The University of California at Berkeley, 1978. 79 pp.

1737. Wright, Stuart. "A Sociological Study of Defection from Controversial New Religious Movements." Ph.D. diss., The University of Connecticut, 1983.

1738. Zerin, Margory Fischer. "The Pied Piper Phenomenon: Family Systems and Vulnerability to Cults." Ph.D. diss., The Fielding Institute, Santa Barbara, Calif., 1982.

Master Theses

1739. Carlson, David A. "A Commentary on the Pledge Service Focusing on the Children's Pledge: One Tradition Observed by the Unification Church Movement." Master's thesis, Pacific School of Religion, 1981. 131 pp.

1740. Chang, Young Choon. "The Tongil Kyo, A New Cult in Korea." Master's thesis, Central Baptist Seminary, 1970. 181 pp.

1741. Eden, Eve. "The Unification Church: A Study of Structure and Conversion." Master's thesis, University of Michigan, 1979.

1742. Mickler, Michael L. "A History of the Unification Church in the Bay Area: 1960-74." Master's thesis, Graduate Theological Union, 1980. 286 pp.

1743. Rapkins, Carl. "Contemporary Religious Intensity: Deprivation, Felt Perceptions of the Sacred and Conversion in the pre-1972 Unification Church." Appendix in "Religious Intensity: A Study of Conversion and Deviance in Pascal and Tolstoy." Master's thesis, San Francisco Theological Seminary, 1978.

1744. Savad, Mark Harry. "Study of a Modem Religious Movement: The Unification Church." Master's thesis, Georgetown University, 1976. 164 pp.

1745. Taylor, David. "The Social Organization of Recruitment in the Unification Church." Master's thesis, University of Montana, 1978. 162 pp.